Sacred rivers that originated in the Himalayan regions of Nepal or the Trans-Himalayan parts of the Himalayan region cannot be separated from the notion of the cultural geography of the Mahabharata. It is clear that in most cases, the River Valley civilisation system of the Kaushiki (Koshi), Gandaki and Karnali starts from the Trans-Himalayan parts of Nepal and Tibet. Nonetheless, please note that at least through the explanation of hydrological sciences, the sources of many of these river tributaries have been traced to be the glacier lakes and snowy peaks of the Himalayan region.
The reality is that most of the sacred rivers venerated and worshipped by the Vedic- Sanatanis’ (Hindus) and the Himalayan people have been the source of spiritual pilgrimage in the region. All the major confluences of these sacred rivers have been important tirthas linked either with the descriptions discussed in the epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana, or in various Puranas and Mahatmyas composed at least around half a millennium to a few millennium years ago. Besides the significant places of spiritual, historical and archaeological importance in the Kaushiki region or in the region of the Vaisnava God Varaha linked with the Mahabharata, various spiritual centres located in and around the Gandaki or Narayani River Valley civilisation regions are also of equal importance.
The Muktikshetra spiritual region has been very broadly recognised as one of the heavenly abodes of Lord Vishnu/Narayana or Krishna-Damodara. The principal sources of River Krishna Gandaki is Damodar Kunda and Damodar Himal (ponds of spiritual or divine water) in the Upper-Eastside of Mustang District. These areas have been identified with the other popular name of Lord Krishna. The source stream and mountain range around Damodar Kunda have been identified as the source of the god Salagrama, a divine stone-form of Lord Vishnu. Subsequently, this is the main reason behind River Krishna Gandaki popularly being known as Salagrami, the river of Salagrama, or the river of sacred/divinely purified water. Likewise, another name for River Gandaki, Narayani, is also related to the Vaisnava or Bhagavat Dharma described in the Bhagavata-Purana and this also has a direct link to Lord Krishna and his brother Balarama.
The Temple of Muktinath/Lokapala or for Buddhists, Aryavaloketeshvara (Phagpa Chenreshig in Tibetan) is the principal spiritual centre in the Muktikshetra. The Damodara Kunda and River Krishna Gandaki, as well as each and every confluence linked with this sacred river, have been venerated as significant pilgrimage sites. The entire region between Devghat, Chitwan in the south and the destination of Damodar Kunda or Damodar Himal in Mustang via Rurukshetra - Ridhi Dhaam, Myagdibeni in Myagdi district, Modibeni in Parvat, Kagbeni, Muktinath Temple, and the natural springs of flamed-water (known as Jwala in Sanskrit, and Chulamevar in local Lo dialect or in Tibetan) in Mustang district, are all important pilgrimage places of the Muktikshetra (the place of ultimate salvation).
The trail connecting western Tibet through the river valleys of lower and upper Kali Gandaki have also been believed to be the route traversed by the Pandavas on their way to western Tibet and the Kailasha-Manasarovara region. It is believed that they travelled through all the tirthas of this river valley including Devaghata, Ridi, Modibeni, Myagdibeni, Galeshwardham, Kagbeni and Muktinath.
The principal deities of the Western Himalayas known as Badrinath-Kedarnath in the Uttaranchal Himalayas, and as Muktinath in the Nepal Himalayas, are also connected by a unique historical and cultural relationship. This entire Himalayan region including the Guge-Purang or Taklakot-Taglakhar (pilgrimage centre of Khojanath region), and Kailash-Manasarovara areas of both the cis-Himalayan and Trans-Himalayan regions were an integral part of the Khasa-Yatse rulers of Nepal. The Khasa rulers and their successors, the Kings of Jumla, venerated both deities, Badrinath and Muktinath, as their main tutelary deities. These rulers were common leaders of the whole Trans-Himalayan Kingdom of Yatse (the Khasadesha), which included the entire area of Kumaun Garhwal and The Ngari of Western Tibet. Moreover, the Khasa rulers used to go on pilgrimage in the Tapovan area of Badrinath, and in some cases, went to spend the final days of their life there. They were keen to patronise the spiritual centres of this entire Himalayan region, and even the Khasa rulers’ Royal orders included an invocation with the names of both Badrinath and Muktinath - “Sri Badarinatho Jayati! Sri Muktinatha Sahayah!” Likewise, King Krachalla and Ashokachalla of the Khasa-Yatse Nagaraja Dynasty had installed their statues in several important temples of the Western Himalayas including at Badrinath and at Gopeshwar in Garhwal. A gold-plated bronze statue of King Asokachalla with his queen has been kept safely inside the small repository in Badrinath Temple, which was identified by the author of this section several years ago during a field visit.
The Yatse-Khasa rulers were also known in Sanskrit as Yaksha rulers, and their kingdom was known as Yakshaloka or Yaksadesa. The Swargarohana-Parva and the stories related to the difficult spiritual journey undertaken by the Pandavas’ in order to return to swarga (heaven) has been described at times as the journey carried out through the Karnali River Valleys, and the Yakshadesha or Yakshaloka, Gurla, and Mandhata mountain areas in the Western Himalayas.
It is of importance that the connection of the story between Badrinath, Rong-yul or Mana Village, and the destination of Basudhara in reference to the trail of the Pandava brothers is also connected with the popular trail of the Rurukshetra in Ridhi-dhaam via the Surakshetra/Kankrevihara area (present day Surkhet), Upper Karnali Valley of Nepal, via Darchula, Khocher (Khojarnath in Nepali), and via Taglakot or Purang.
Bhishma-Parva of the Mahabharata describes the Huna invaders connection in the northeastern Himalayan region and the fight fought with the local rulers. It is interesting that the Hunas’ were also known as Sogpo ar Horpo in Tibetan. An abundance of evidence was found to describe the recurrent wars fought between the Yatsepa-Khasa rulers and the Sogpo-Horpo invaders, who used to travel through the Himalayas for trade, regional subjugation and even for looting. Later, these invaders were also commonly known as the Tartars
